Depredation of Livestock by Wild Carnivores in the Eastern Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania

Abstract

Globally, wild carnivore populations outside protected areas are at threat from retaliatory killings triggered by livestock depredation. Monitoring of livestock depredation in specific areas is essential to formulate conflict management strategies that can address the root causes of human carnivore conflicts and promote wild carnivore conservation. Livestock depredation is associated with several factors, such as the increase in human population and eventual increase in land conversion for agriculture and human settlements, which reduce ecosystem services and increase losses of natural habitats for wild carnivores. Moreover, increased hunting of wild herbivore species by humans for subsistence, sport or trophies has led to the depletion of prey species required by wild carnivores. Additionally, the large home ranges required by many wild carnivores force them to overlap with human activities outside of protected areas, increasing conflicts with farmers. As wide-ranging species, carnivores generally roam beyond the boundaries of protected area from which they disperse into unprotected lands, making them more vulnerable to anthropogenic threats linked to higher human densities and more likely to cause damage by coming into contact with livestock. These conflicts occur in the eastern Serengeti ecosystem and involve most of the wild carnivores. From 2000 onwards, incidences of livestock depredation caused by African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) increased in the area. Researchers were stimulated to investigate whether this depredation was actually occurring, because during the early 1990s, African wild dogs had disappeared from Serengeti National Park. The results of this study showed that problems with African wild dogs did occur and that wild dogs were common predators in the area to the east of Serengeti National Park for several decades. The species primarily preyed on sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra aegagrushircus) in the evening when they were grazing in the fields.

We were challenged by this finding to investigate why more incidences of livestock depredation occurred in the evening when livestock continued to graze in the fields. Did this predation occur because livestock were left unattended in the field or because society had abandoned traditional animal husbandry practices? Therefore, another study was conducted to acquire information to answer this question, and the results revealed that a single herder attended all predator-visited livestock herds. Additionally, more attacks occurred when the herders were young females. Carrying defensive equipment (e.g., knives and spears) reduced the number of successful carnivore attacks. Therefore, improving traditional livestock practices, particularly the use of more adult male herders, might assist in reducing the depredation problem in the area. We further investigated whether conflict with African wild dogs developed in recent years or has existed since the Maasai pastoralists were evicted from Serengeti National Park in 1959. The results revealed that conflicts occurred before 1959, but that the numbers of conflicts were low. Conflicts decreased during the 1990s, but increased again beginning in 2000. This increase was attributed to increases in the human population and livestock numbers as well as increases in wild dog populations in the area. Then, we tested two approaches that could help to either reduce or eliminate the problem in the area. The first approach assessed the attitudes of the Maasai pastoralists towards the conservation of wild carnivores in their area because the conservation of wild carnivores primarily relies on the acceptance of local people. For most Maasai pastoralists, particularly females, negative attitudes were expressed towards the conservation of wild carnivores in their area. However, Maasai pastoralists who had been to school, primarily males, expressed more positive attitudes towards the conservation of wild carnivores. Therefore, to achieve the conservation goals for the species, more conservation interventions should be directed towards females.

We finally tested whether a wildlife education program could increase knowledge of Wild carnivores in the area and thereby change the attitudes of local people, focusing in particular on schoolchildren. The results showed that knowledge of wild carnivore identification increased among the school children involved in our education program. This increase in knowledge was important, in general, for the conservation of wild carnivores and, in particular, for attitudes towards African wild dogs because the post-test results showed that most school children considered wild dogs to be an important part of the ecosystem. Therefore, to foster coexistence, the recommendations of this study are that the continued increase in livestock density must cease and that wild prey populations should be protected in the area. Additionally, improving the herding intensity by increasing the number of adult male herders per livestock herd is required at all times, particularly during the afternoon and evening as well as during seasonally sensitive periods. In our study area, female Maasai pastoralists must be more involved in tourist activities operating in their area, schooled and, when possible, be allowed to access natural resources in protected areas during times of hardship to change their attitudes and gain their support for the conservation of wild carnivores in their area. Additionally, implementation of a wildlife education program and performance payments for the conservation of carnivores and zoning to reduce livestock loss are highly recommended for the area. Furthermore, the involvement of local residents in conflict management and introduction of grass and fodder species could be helpful in mitigating the problem in the area. From the results of this study, future experimental research is required that focuses on using guard dogs to deter wild carnivores from predating on livestock as they graze in the field.